Eurasian Yearbook 2025

Eurasian Yearbook 2025

Третий номер периодического издания «Евразийский ежегодник» Научного Совета Отделения историко-филологических наук РАН по комплексным проблемам новейшей истории и культуры Евразии продолжает исследование ключевых процессов на пространстве Большой Евразии. Центральное место в номере занимают проблемы исторической и современной интеграции и дезинтеграции, рассматриваемые через призму евразийской идеи в китайской интерпретации, исторического соперничества за тихоокеанские рынки и постсоветского урегулирования между Россией и Украиной.

Значительная часть издания посвящена комплексному изучению субрегионов Евразии от глубокой древности до наших дней. Поднимаются вопросы этногенеза, государственности, энергетического сотрудничества, образовательной политики и «зелёной» экономики. Отдельные разделы освещают проблемы исторической памяти и политики, включая восприятие Второй мировой войны в Иране, образ НАТО в медиапространстве Холодной войны и репатриацию населения с Южного Сахалина, а также лингвистическое и литературное наследие евразийского пространства.
Для научных работников, преподавателей, студентов высших учебных заведений, всех интересующихся проблематикой новейшей истории и культуры Евразии.

Processes of integration and disintegration in the space of Greater Eurasia

Part I

Maslov A.A.

Abstract

The Russian-American Company (RAC) and the British Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) paid much attention to Alaska and the Aleutian Islands at the beginning of the 19th century. The article studies the interaction of England and Russia in the North Pacific Ocean. Mutual information about the HBC and the RAC appeared long before the first official contacts. The RAC managed to establish direct contact with the headquarters of the British company in London. It is noted that the presence of the British in the colonial waters of Russian America caused concern even in political circles of St. Petersburg. Therefore, the proposal of British subjects to jointly fight against fur traders from Boston found a very cool response from the headquarters of the RAC and the ministries supervising the company. The main rulers of the RAC used the contradictions between the indigenous people of Alaska and the British to strengthen the influence in the coastal territory. In 1854, the Russian and British governments recognized the neutrality, which guaranteed the safety of the companies’ property. The article uses documents from domestic and foreign archives.

Hudson’s Bay Company, Russian-American Company, colonies, Alaska, 18th-19th centuries

Keywords

Abstract

Conceptions of classical and neo-Eurasianism, and related notions such as a “common Eurasian space” or “Greater Eurasia,” are viewed by Chinese academics and policymakers as largely abstract and cultural, contrasting with the historical exclusion of China from Eurasia in Chinese perspectives. Within the context of China, Eurasianism is primarily a theoretical construct developed by Russian political theorists, which has garnered some measure of support from contemporary political figures. Throughout history, China has perceived threats from Eurasian entities; initially nomadic groups, and subsequently Western imperial powers. The existence of trade and political links, both historically and presently, has not been precluded by this, however, it does not facilitate a common understanding of the cultural and spatial continuum. The 20th and 21st centuries saw Asian countries pursue an inclusive identity through ideas like Pan-Asianism and common Asian values, however, national and regional concepts, like the “Chinese Dream” and “Belt and Road Initiative,” have become dominant. China doesn’t view the Eurasian cultural-spatial concept as inclusive; thus, grasping its cultural and historical significance globally necessitates finding fresh avenues for robust intellectual collaboration between Russia and China.

Russia, China, Asia, Eurasianism, search for identity, cultural values, pan-Asianism, Belt and Road, Chinese Dream

Keywords

Petrov A.Yu.

Sub-regions of Eurasia (from ancient imes to the present day)

Part II

Prudnikov A.D.

Filin N.A, Koklikov V.O., Ravandi-Fadai L.M., Khodunov A.S.

Zaytsev I.V.

Aktamov I.G.

Imanova S.A.

Golikova S.V.

Abstract

This article examines the issue of dividing Soviet assets and debts among the former Soviet republics. The author focuses on the negotiations regarding these matters between two key CIS states ‒ Russia and Ukraine. It is shown that, despite the agreements reached in the early 1990s on the so-called “zero option,” under which Russia, in exchange for fully repaying all Soviet debts, received all Soviet overseas property, Ukraine subsequently laid claim to a portion of Soviet assets. According to the author, Ukraine has no legal basis for such claims, since, as of the early 2020s, Russia has paid off all Soviet debts to foreign creditors and therefore has the right to claim the entirety of Soviet assets, regardless of Kyiv’s ratification of the 1994 Russian-Ukrainian agreement.

post-Soviet space, collapse of the USSR, Russia, Ukraine, USSR debts, Soviet assets, division of Soviet property, zero option, negotiations, ratification, Euromaidan, coup d’etat, special military operation, Ukrainian crisis

Keywords

Abstract

The article examines Iran’s policies during World War II and how modern Iranians perceive the war. It is well-known that Reza Shah Pahlavi, a cruel and despotic ruler, cooperated closely with Hitler’s Germany ‒ so closely, in fact, that he posed a direct threat to the USSR. The Anglo-Soviet intervention subsequently led to his overthrow and the rise to power of his son, Mohammad Reza. The new authorities helped the Allies organise the supply of weapons and other goods to the Red Army through Iranian territory. While modern Iranians have a positive attitude towards their country’s contribution to the victory over Nazism and respect the Soviet people’s achievements in fighting Hitler, they mainly emphasise the negative aspects of the Allies’ presence with regard to Iranian socio-economic and demographic development, paying insufficient attention to the positive aspects.

Iran, Russia, USSR, World War II, Great Patriotic War, Victory, historical memory, lend-lease, genocide, media

Keywords

Abstract

The article provides a comprehensive source study analysis of the work “History of Khan Ablai” (“Nasab-nama-yi Abylai-khan”) by Akhmet Kenesarin, a direct descendant and biographer of one of the most iconic rulers of the Kazakh Khanate. The author examines the text in terms of its origin, attribution, structure, and content, determining its place within the corpus of medieval Central Asian historical writings. The study reveals the value of the source not only for reconstructing the biography of Khan Ablai and the genealogy of the Kazakh ruling houses but also for understanding the complex political processes, institutions of power, and traditions of steppe statehood in Kazakhstan in the 18th century. Particular attention is paid to the question of the reliability of the information presented in the text and its correlation with data from other synchronous sources.

Kazakh Khanate, Khan Ablai, Akhmet Kenesarin, historical source, source studies, genealogy, genealogy, steppe statehood

Keywords

Abstract

This study attempts to characterize China’s educational policy in higher education after the start of reform and opening up. The article presents an analysis of the measures taken by the PRC leadership to develop the higher education system, including the development of regulatory frameworks, the adoption of documents and programs, and the implementation of large-scale projects at the end of the 20th century. The focus of the study is on issues of ensuring and improving the quality of education. It was determined that large-scale projects of the Chinese government for the development of universities made it possible to achieve formal indicators, but did not fully resolve the issue of improving the quality of education. At the same time, this problem is of an objective nature, which no country in the world can solve in the current conditions of intensive development of society and technology. This study presents preliminary results, which are an integral part of the systemic analysis of the development features of the higher education system of the PRC, which will be disclosed in the following publications.

PRC, education system, educational policy, quality of higher education

Keywords

Abstract

The article examines the establishment of the Moscow-Siberian Route within the Perm Governorate, a process that continued until the 1820s. The road is analyzed as a transport infrastructure object, focusing on the selection of its route, engineering solutions, and equipment. By 1754, the route took its familiar form as a postal road from Moscow through Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan to Kungur and Yekaterinburg, and then to Tyumen. Significant changes in the route occurred after the establishment of the Perm Viceroyalty (later Governorate), when it turned through the district town of Okhansk to Perm and then back to Kungur. Two other minor adjustments near Okhansk and the border with Tobolsk Governorate were made due to challenging hydrological conditions in the basins of the Kama and Pyshma rivers. The route passed through five cities and Okhansky, Permsky, Kungursky, Krasnoufimsky, Yekaterinburgsky, Kamyshlovsky districts (uyezdy) (from the station “Kosulino” began its more southern branch through the city of Shadrinsk), with improvements including an increase in postal stations (from 22 to 31/32) and standardization of distances between them (to the norm of 25 km). The challenges of constructing the route ‒ its length of 706 km within the governorate and the difficult terrain (the deep Kama River, the Ural Mountains crossing)—were mitigated by the efforts of K.F. Moderah, the governor of Perm. As one of the best engineers of his time, he devised effective technological solutions for road construction and necessary structures (bridges, ditches, crossings, etc.), while as a governor, he ensured oversight of their implementation. Alongside the physical construction, the mental image of the route began to take shape, starting with the cities, the crossing of the Kama, and the perception of the Perm Governorate as the boundary between Russia and Siberia, Europe and Asia.

Siberian Route, land communication routes, Perm Governorate, postal road guides, travelogue, cultural geography, A.N. Radishchev, K.F. Moderah

Keywords

Abstract

The main purpose of the study is to study and summarize the relations between the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China on a multilateral basis and in the context of regional energy projects. The advancement of relations between Russia, an important energy supplier, and China, one of the largest energy consumers, within the framework of international organizations – BRICS, Shanghai Cooperation Organization and APEC – is important in terms of ensuring regional energy security. In this regard, the focus of the article is to examine the characteristic aspects of the format of multilateral cooperation between the two countries, the factors that determine and hinder these relations.
The novelty of the article lies in raising the issue and reflecting the approach to energy cooperation within the framework of integration associations between Russia and China on a multilateral basis.
The article discusses the emergence of partnership relations in the energy sphere between Russia and China – members of BRICS, gives an important place to energy security in mutual cooperation, emphasizes the need for these relations in the context of sanctions against Russia and China’s growing demand for energy, and analyzes mutual interests within the organization. The article analyzes the importance of the initiatives of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization in the area of energy collaboration in terms of economic and social development including not just Russia and China, but also of Eurasia as a whole, emphasizing the importance of these ties both from a strategic perspective and from the standpoint of environmental safety. Multilateral cooperation, including under the auspices of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, creates conditions for both countries in the fight against international crises.
One of the primary priorities of Russia’s energy policy is collaboration with the states of the Asia-Pacific region. The growing demand for energy resources and the importance of diversifying fuel sources, taking into account energy security in the Asia-Pacific region, are a priority in relations with APEC economies, including China. The result of the study allows us to consider that the development of energy cooperation on a multilateral basis serves regional economic security, the development of diversification policies and alternative cooperation and causes the emergence of new priority areas in this field.

multilateral cooperation, oil and gas, summit, Shanghai Cooperation Organization, BRICS, APEC, energy

Keywords

Bazarov B.V., Gombozapov A.D.

Kuras L.V.

Dudin P.N.

Gombozapov A.D.

Abstract

The article is devoted to the analysis of ethnopolitical processes in Mongolian society in the late Middle Ages. The post-imperial period is characterized by significant transformations of the political and ethnic landscape associated with the processes of re-emigration of Mongolian military contingents and service population. The most important characteristic of this is the transformation from the system of military-administrative units of the Yuan Empire into an ethnopolitical community. Collected and replenished from different clan and tribal units to perform certain security, military, economic, administrative and other tasks and being resettled after certain events to the Mongolian steppes, the collectives of service people gradually lost the original purpose of their organization and replaced it in the conditions of economic particularism with an ethnic and cultural identity with a characteristic set of functions. However, this set cannot be reduced to a narrow "repertoire", an expression of only socio-cultural differences. Social groups clothed in ethnic form were simultaneously tribal, territorial and political associations

Mongolia, identity, ethnic community, tribal, tumen

Keywords

Abstract

The reason for preparing this material was an article by Batbayar Bayanbaatar, a Master of Laws at the Mongolian State University, on the pages of a Russian legal journal, which completely disavows the 1915 Agreement. Moreover, the legal document, which is 110 years old, is interpreted as «a manifestation of Russia's gross violation of the basic principles of international law». The article, dedicated to the signing of the Treaty of Kyakhta between Russia, China and Mongolia in 1915, which became the foundation of modern Mongolian statehood, analyzes the main statements of the document. At the same time, diplomatic documents are considered that became the basis for signing the Agreement. Among them are the Mongolian-Russian agreement of 1912, not recognized by the Chinese side, and the Chinese-Russian declaration of 1913, according to which Mongolia was recognized as an autonomous state under the suzerainty of China. But Mongolia did not recognize this document. Lengthy negotiations began and in 1915 a triple agreement was signed in Kyakhta, according to which Mongolia was recognized as an autonomous state under the suzerainty of China.
In addition, the article also examines the reasons for the abolition of the autonomy

Russia, Mongolia, China, statehood, Kyakhta Agreement

Keywords

Abstract

The article analyzes the transformations in the social organization of nomadic populations in contemporary Mongolia, conceptualizing the nomadic community as a form of horizontal social structure that demonstrates variable configurations of territorial and kinship-based organizational principles. The study reveals a distinct spatial differentiation in these social organizational patterns: in peri-urban zones, particularly around Ulaanbaatar, territorial principles emerge as dominant, coinciding with processes of social stratification, intensified migration flows, and progressive sedentarization among nomadic groups. Conversely, in more remote regions, traditional kinship networks maintain their structural significance, serving as crucial mechanisms for community formation that facilitate the protection of pastoral land rights, establish informal claims to grazing territories, and mediate between competing private and public land-use interests. This organizational duality reflects adaptive responses to systemic contradictions in land governance, where formal legal frameworks are frequently complemented and effectively mitigated through the persistent self-organizational capacities of nomadic households, illustrating the dynamic interplay between institutional structures and traditional social formations during Mongolia’s ongoing pastoral transition.

Mongolia, nomadic communities, principles of social organization, territoriality, kinship

Keywords

Abstract

The article is devoted to the study of the complex history and multistage evolution of Mongolian institutions of public authority in the territory of Chahar during the first half of the 20th century. This period was an era of profound transformations for Inner Mongolia, affecting both the administrative-territorial structure and traditional institutions (seims, aimags, hoshuns). Using the example of Chahar, the processes of adaptation, transformation, and continuity of these institutions are analyzed under the constantly changing policy of central subordination pursued by successive Chinese governments (late Qing, Republican, Guomindang) and, during a specific period, by the Japanese side and the collaborationist regimes it created. The study traces the changes in Chahar's political and administrative status by identifying and analyzing eight successive 'polities' – from the old imperial aimag, through a special district and a province of the Republic of China, proJapanese autonomies and structures within Manchukuo/Mengjiang, to a province under communist rule. Particular attention is paid to the influence of Chahar's specific geopolitical position as a buffer zone at the junction of civilizations and an object of administrative experiments on the structure and functions of Mongolian governing bodies. Studying the dynamics of these institutions provides a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of governing multi-ethnic states and the specifics of modernization processes on the national peripheries of Eurasia.

Chahar, Inner Mongolia, Mongolian institutions of public authority, central subordination policy, Republic of China, Guomindang, Manchukuo, Mengjiang, buffer statehood

Keywords

Kotyukova T.V.

Oktyabrskaya I.V., Samushkina E.V.

Bukharin M.D., Ilizarov S.S.

Nasirkhodjaev I.D.

Abstract

Missionary work as a form of self-promotion is inherent in all world religions. Having previously encouraged proselytism, and often actively using it in the new territories of the growing empire, in the second half of the 19th century. in Central Asia, Russia decided to abandon the use of such practices. Despite this, the Tashkent and Turkestan dioceses tried to carry out missionary work on their own, and most actively in the period from 1907 to 1917. The diocese had no staff, no money, no support from both the central and regional administrations, and there were not enough enthusiastic missionaries. At the same time, the diocese seemed to itself to be the vanguard of imperial policy in the region, a potential that the state, for some far-fetched reasons, did not want to develop and use. However, in order to compete with the “Muslim clergy” in the specific conditions of the region, the Orthodox clergy were not prepared. What kind of Orthodox missionary work was in Turkestan and whether it was at all – we will try to figure it out on the basis of the annual reports of the Turkestan and Tashkent dioceses to the Holy Synod and publications in the Turkestan Diocesan Gazette magazine.

Tashkent and Turkestan diocese, missionary work, Turkestan region, Orthodox Church, Orthodoxy, Islam.

Keywords

Abstract

The article is devoted to the evaluation of the concepts of “soft power”, “image” and “brand” based on the materials of the modern Republic of Uzbekistan. It shows the importance of the cultural, informational and ideological component in the sphere of interethnic interactions of the country. The author’s research focuses on the state cultural policy, socio-political discourse and branding practices of the republic. Focusing on multi-vector diplomacy, Uzbekistan is developing broad international cooperation, broadcasting to the world community the image of a sovereign, goodneighborly state playing a system-building role in Central Asia; positioning itself as an intermediary country connecting East and West. Variable integration models determine the specifics of the emerging soft power strategy. Apart from traditional and parliamentary diplomacy, Uzbekistan’s instruments and mechanisms of soft power include its world-famous historical, cultural and spiritual values, distinctive traditions and the development of country and regional branding based on them. The formation of brand platforms and soft power architecture is a long and complex process. Modern Uzbekistan is at the beginning of this path. Claiming to be a regional leader in Central Asia, he effectively uses cultural heritage as the basis for a positive image that serves to strengthen security and ensure sustainable development of the country and the macroregion.

Uzbekistan, soft power, cultural heritage, national image, country and regional branding

Keywords

Abstract

The article examines current areas of cooperation between the Republic of Uzbekistan and the Russian Federation in the transition to a green economy. The aim of the study is to identify and analyze key areas of interaction between the two countries in the context of sustainable development, renewable energy, environmentally oriented waste management, environmental monitoring, and the creation of green jobs. The novelty of the work lies in its comprehensive approach to assessing Uzbekistan-Russia cooperation against the backdrop of contemporary challenges related to resource scarcity, the need for technological modernization, and the fulfillment of international environmental commitments. Particular attention is paid to the practical aspects of joint projects, including the modernization of hydroelectric power plants, the construction of solar power stations, the implementation of digital monitoring systems, and the exchange of expertise in waste management. The study’s results demonstrate the potential of bilateral partnership for enhancing energy security, reducing environmental impact, and facilitating the transition to a sustainable economic model.

Uzbekistan-Russia cooperation, green economy, renewable energy, waste management, green jobs, environment

Keywords

Abstract

The article reconstructs the biography of Russian historian, philologist, ethnographer member of the Academy of Sciences of USSR V.A. Gordlevsky (1876‒1956). Scientific activity and biographies of the scholar were extensively studied, however, until now they have not been completely reconstructed: a number of important pages in the history formation of Gordlevsky as a scholar, history of his scientific ativity requires additional research, attracting newer archival materials. The importance of addressing to Gordlevsky’s figure in the context of the history of science is explained by the fact that his scientific work is inextricably linked with the history of a number of leading institutions of Soviet science and culture, the activities of academician Gordlevsky reflect many twists and turns in the history of the Russian Empire and USSR. One of the less known sources of information on the scientific activity of V.A. Gordlevsky is the archive of the Russian State Library (Rumyantsev Museum), in which V.A. Gordlevsky worked in 1919‒1933. Academician Gordlevsky was one of those few specialists who in fact created the department of Oriental studies of Lenin Library. Despite the attraction of a significant amount of archival material, a number of issues affected by the article have not yet been answered. The reasons why V.A. Gordlevsky was forced to leave the library staff are unclear. Perhaps addressing the archives of other institutions will answer this question.

history of science, Oriental studies, Turkology, Libraries, V.A. Gordlevsky.

Keywords

The article is dedicated to the study of the visual image of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and its role in the informational confrontation during the Cold War. Visual representations of NATO are examined through cartoons published in the newspapers Pravda and The New York Times. The research focuses on the years 1948 to 1953, a period marked by the formation of initial perceptions of the North Atlantic Alliance. A comprehensive sample encompassing 4,382 issues allowed for the identification of 251 cartoons related to the topic of NATO. Methods of critical observation, content analysis, and comparison provided both quantitative and qualitative data regarding the caricatural representation of the organization in two distinct contexts. Differences in the quantitative expression of images and in the visual concepts of cartoons from Soviet and American publications were identified. It was determined that, despite these differences, symbols of opposition, danger, and weaponry from both sides established a “coordinate system” in which peace was marginalized. In both countries, NATO’s image contributed to the construction of identity and internal cohesion, as well as served to mobilize the population, albeit with differing ultimate objectives: in the Soviet Union, it aimed to stimulate labor activity, while in the United States, it functioned to unite allies against Soviet influence and justify NATO funding. These aspects reveal how visual means were employed to shape public opinion and manipulate perception of threats and security, underscoring the importance of visual content in the realm of informational confrontation.

The article considers the existence of historical memory in modern sculptural forms, examines the issue of changes in the methods of transmitting historical memory in connection with the development of artistic communication in contemporary art. It was revealed that one of the significant factors that influenced the methods of transmitting the theme of historical memory in sculpture is the structure of social memory, which has become more complex in the 20th and 21st centuries, in connection with historical and personal memory. Another significant factor is the changes that have occurred in art, in particular in sculpture, the morphological boundaries of which have significantly expanded, new ways of interacting with space and the viewer have appeared. The combination of these two factors manifested itself in the development of new forms of existence of historical memory in sculpture. These forms can be built on new compositional techniques based on the qualities of interactivity, immersion, processuality and site-specificity of contemporary art.

Keywords

repatriation, historiography, Southern Sakhalin, Kuril Islands, history studies

The article deals with the analysis of Russian historiography exploring the process of repatriation of civilians and prisoners of war from Southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands after World War II. The study examines the key stages in the development of historical scholarship in this field, starting from the Soviet period, when ideologically driven approaches prevailed, and ending with contemporary research that strives for a more objective and comprehensive understanding of the events. Special attention is paid to the evolving interpretations of the repatriation of Japanese, Koreans, and indigenous peoples, such as the Ainu, as well as the influence of political and social factors on the formation of historical narratives. The aim of the article is to identify the main trends, gaps, and achievements in the study of this topic, as well as to demonstrate how researchers’ perspectives have evolved in the context of changing historical eras.

Abstract

Keywords

NATO, Pravda, New York Times, image, cartoons, cold war

The history of the first productions of the ballet «Stone Flower», which showed Ural folklore to a wide Soviet audience, is presented in this paper. The materials of the Central State Archive of Literature and Art of St. Petersburg were the basis of the research. The task of representing regional cultures in the art of musical theater was very important in the late 1940s in the Soviet Union. Folklore material of the Ural region, which combined the components of traditional and industrial Russian culture in the imperial period, allowed us to present topical subjects. Ballet finally mastered a new space for the real solution of informational, ideological and aesthetic problems after the Second World War. The theaters of the country then joined in the development of the theme of Ural folklore by means of choreography. The basis was taken from the tales of Pavel Bazhov, which he created in the late 1930s. It was a state order for the study of folklore studies. The first experiments of creating a libretto demonstrate the sharpness of socially significant, social issues, the development of the theme of duty to the people. The play «The Stone Flower» (composer Orest Yevlakhov. libretto by Mikhail Lobodin) in the late 1940s. He was supposed to present on the stage of the Kirov Theater in Leningrad the culture of the industrial Urals of the second half of the XIX century and its socio-political dimension. Yuri Grigorovich's production will appear and demonstrate the new artistic principles of the era in 1957.

Abstract

Keywords

Soviet ballet, cultural policy, Ural region, Ural folklore, tales of Pavel Bazhov, ballet «The Stone Flower»

Abstract

Keywords

historical memory, communication, sculpture, monumental art, interactive art, procedurality

Abstract

Din Y.I.

Sapanzha O.S

Klinova M.A., Melnikova N.V.

Podolskaya K.S.

Part III

Historical memory and problems of historical politics

Abstract

Eurasian Congress of Linguists, international scientific cooperation, linguistics, Russian as a language of science, preservation of linguistic diversity

Keywords

The article provides an overview of the First Eurasian Congress of Linguists (EACL-1), held in Moscow from December 9 to 13, 2024. The Congress was organized by the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences with the support of the Russian Ministry of Science and Higher Education and other organizations. It was conceived as a response to the cancellation of the Permanent International Committee of Linguists (CIPL) congress in Russia. The event featured over 600 presenters from 45 countries, including leading world scholars. The program included plenary lectures, 18 thematic sections, 22 round tables, and public lectures. Special attention was paid to the role of Russian as a language of science, support for sign languages, and current issues in modern linguistics. The Congress helped strengthen international and interregional academic ties, overcome the isolation of Russian science, and served as a platform for sharing cutting-edge research.

Languages and literature of the countries of the Eurasian space

Part IV

Kibrik A.A., Mazurova J.V